Creating Understandable and Coherent Paragraphs for Your Essay

Creating Understandable and Coherent Paragraphs for Your Essay Writing is a complex process wherein you’re supposed to discuss a certain subject, elaborate some topic and make sure your work is easy on the eyes as well. It’s not only important to essay writing, novel, or article that is grammatically correct without any essay mistakers or typos. High-quality works require proper structure. Ideally, you should always strive to write a paper that is easy to read. Your readers, clients or professors shouldn’t feel like they are trapped by the text. That’s why you need to pay extra attention to creating understandable and coherent paragraphs. Throughout this article, I’m going to show you how to organize paragraphs and make your work appealing. Although to most people attractiveness of the text seems a bit unnecessary it plays a big role in how other people perceive your work. Don’t worry; it’s not difficult, I promise! What is a paragraph? It’s always to define something first and I’m going to do it in this section. Paragraph is defined as a group of sentences organized around a central topic. These sentences aren’t random; they are used to express one point, thought or idea. Organizing paragraphs doesn’t only make it easier for reader to go through your work, it also helps you stay on the right track. Basic rule for paragraphing Here’s the basic rule that will help you write and organize paragraphs: keep one idea to one paragraph. If you notice you already started discussing some other notion or idea it means it’s time for the next paragraph. However, in some cases it can be quite difficult to determine whether you’re on the same topic or not. For example, you can discuss one idea that is divided into smaller bits of supporting evidence. You can freely discuss multiple points within one paragraph only if they are related to the idea you’re discussing. But, if you notice that paragraph is becoming too long it would be a better idea to discuss each point in separate section or paragraph. How does effective paragraph look like? Here are the qualities that effective paragraph should contain: It should present a single idea It should start with a topic sentence which makes some idea evident All sentences should act like the supporting evidence that convey single idea It should be strategically organized to maintain flow It should maintain objective of essay, novel, article, or some other type of work you’re writing It should entertain and inform reader i.e. it should be short, precise and informative. Try to avoid the fluff. Elements of paragraph I like to compare paragraph to foundation and supporting walls of some building. Only when supporting walls and foundation are strong your building can be strong as well. Without them, the building would simply collapse. The same thing can be said about essays, novels etc. If their foundation and structure isn’t good, quality of entire work is going to be jeopardized as well. To avoid this scenario you have to understand what it takes to write an effective paragraph. Here are the elements that paragraphs should contain: Unity – as I’ve already mentioned: one paragraph, one idea/focus. It should start and end with one idea without wandering within different ideas. Coherence – it should be easy to read. You can add coherence to paragraphs by creating logical or vertical bridges. Creating logical bridges means discussing one idea within said paragraph while vertical bridges are created by repeating certain keywords in multiple sentences, using synonyms, pronouns, and transition words. A topic sentence – it refers to a sentence which indicates the idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although topic sentences can be included just about anywhere in a paragraph it’s recommended to keep it closes to the beginning for easier understanding. Example: There are many reasons why lack of sleep can have significant impact on your health and increased stress level is just one of them. Adequate development – now that your paragraph has a topic it’s important to make sure it is adequately developed. As I already stated you should make it precise and informative. You can accomplish this by citing data, facts or statistics, using examples, telling anecdote or a story, evaluate causes or reasons etc. Length of paragraphs When it comes to length of paragraphs there’s no one size fits all rule. It depends on the general topic you chose as well as the idea you’re going to discuss in that paragraph. However, you should make sure paragraph isn’t too short or too long either. General rule of a thumb is about five to seven sentences per paragraph. Be careful though, writing paragraphs that are too short (two to three sentences) isn’t a good idea. Paragraphs that short are rarely informative i.e. no adequate development. How to start a new paragraph? This is one of the most common questions that people have about paragraphs. Here’s when you should start a new one: When you start discussing a new idea To demonstrate contrast of ideas or arguments When you assume readers would need a pause (reading paragraphs that are too long can be quite exhausting) When ending introductions and starting to write conclusions. Paragraphs add order and unity to your work, they make your paper easier to read, and help you stay on the right track. Ideally, paragraph should contain four elements listed above and discuss one particular idea. Use tips from this article to write better and more coherent paragraphs in order to improve the quality of your work.

Krogers Grocery Store †Marketing Strategy

Krogers Grocery Store – Marketing Strategy Free Online Research Papers MKT 501 KROGER’S MARKETING STRATEGY INTRODUCTION The purpose of this report is to offer my suggestions on Kroger’s marketing strategy. In this report I will include comments on how the company should target cost-conscious consumers with products such as: discount/generic drugs, private label brands, and organic food line. I will conclude this report with a brief summary of the entire analysis, highlighting some of the more significant parts that the report contains. MARKETING STRATEGY â€Å"Kroger’s competitive strategy is that of a low cost operator that is able to sell at relatively low prices and still generate good financial return based on their cost structure. Supporting this marketing strategy of focusing on the customer.† They call this as their â€Å"Customer 1st† strategy. This marketing strategy has driven sales upward and has helped the company to offer lower prices without negatively affecting financial returns. The main key ingredient of low cost and low selling prices is the fact that Kroger offers the most extensive variety of private brand products offered by any of the traditional grocers. â€Å"In the most recent quarter private label represented almost 27% of the company’s grocery sales.† (Duff) This strategy has worked extremely well for Kroger. According, to Terry Schumacher, for the last several years identical stores tend to be in the mid-single digit range which are notably better than rival Safewa y and SUPERVALU. MY OPINION A good marketing strategy for any company to adopt, in an effort to be successful, is to understand who your customers are and what needs they would be looking to gratify. In other words you must determine who your target audiences are. Then you must create your strategy to match the strengths of your company to compliment the needs of your customer clientele. Identify the consequences, is this something that the company can accomplish without a big negative change. Take the time to research and develop a marketing plan that would boost profits for its company, as well as ensure you have the most competitive products and services in the market. The whole purpose for change in a company is to improve profitability. Some other good keys to remember when creating your marketing strategy to improve profit could be to remember your goal is to acquire more customers and persuade those customers to buy more products. These are all suggestions that I believe Kroger really took into consideration. They took a step back and looked at what their consumer wanted. Customers wanted a quality product at a reasonable price and were willing to switch brands and Kroger took advantage of that fact. Furthermore, Kroger offers a â€Å"Kroger plus Savings Card that allows members to receive special discounts on most products without having to clip coupons. In addition, Kroger is the fifth-largest pharmacy operator in the United States in number of locations, operating retail pharmacies in over 1,900 of our food stores. â€Å"During fiscal 2008, Kroger pharmacists filled over 121 million prescriptions at a retail value of approximately $6.5 billion, an increase of approximately 9% from the previous year.† (Kroger.com) Kroger also is offering a 30-day supply on hundreds of prescriptions for only $4, or get a 90-day supply for only $10. That means you can save on generic drugs used to treat a tremendo us range of medical conditions. â€Å"Health wellness and sustainability concerns are leading many of today’s customers to look for more organic choices on their grocers’ shelves, and Kroger is responding in a very big way to deliver â€Å"organics for everyone†. In August 2007, we expanded the organic product offering sold under our exclusive Private Selection ® brand. Our stores offer more than 60 Private Selection (PS) Organicâ„ ¢ items ranging from everyday staples like milk, ketchup, butter and eggs to new items like cereal, salads, and snacks. Every PS Organicâ„ ¢ product contains at least 95% organic ingredients and is USDA certified, assuring our customers that these products are grown and processed without preservatives, artificial colors or flavors. We continue to add new items to this proprietary line-up.† (Kroger.com) CONCLUSION The ideal to come up with a marketing strategy that targets specific customer needs is an outstanding idea. You want to sell products and services that customers can identify with. This ideal has become a benchmark for others to follow. Competitors are now finding themselves adapting to Kroger’s change. The key to maintaining profits into the future will be to optimize cost awareness and attract new customers and existing customers to their isles and improve the whole shopping experience. They’ve got to continue to focus on the customer. WORKS CITED 1. http://Kroger.com retrieved 16 Oct 2009 2. â€Å"Marketing Basics for the Small Business† by Laura Lake, Retrieved 12 April 2007 from http://marketing.about.com/cs/sbmarketing/l/aa060103a.htm 4. â€Å"The Capabilities of Market-Driven Organizations.† By George S. Day, Retrieved from Market Driven Strategy, New York: The Free Press.1994. Journal of Marketing, 58 (4): 37-52 on 10 Oct 2009 5. Dillon Says Kroger Strategy Delivers in Recession, Will Keep Paying By Mike Duff | Jun 7, 2009 http://industry.bnet.com/retail/10002611/dillon-says-kroger-strategy-delivers-in-recession-will-keep-paying/ 6. Terry Schumacher Major Grocery Chains: Competitive strategy Matters Retrieved 8 Oct 2009 from Http:// seekingalpha.com/article/112305-major-grocery-chains-competitive-strategy Research Papers on Kroger's Grocery Store - Marketing StrategyAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanDefinition of Export QuotasOpen Architechture a white paperThe Project Managment Office SystemTwilight of the UAWNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New Employees

Caffeine effect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Caffeine effect - Essay Example Black tea brewed for 4 minutes has 40-100 milligrams. Green tea has one-third as much caffeine as black tea.† (Definition of Caffeine) The purpose of this essay is to make a reasonable assessment on the subject matter, sighting the roles of Caffeine in the lives of human being, but primarily the essay would focus on its effect, that is the Caffeine effect as the main topic, while my Research will be tagged as ‘The positive and negative effect of Caffeine to the human life. What ever God in his infinite mercy given to human being, does not primarily given to have negative effects, unless probably while applying it, then people will begin to make misuse of it, and finally reflect back to them the way they have applied it hitherto. To this end, to begin with sighting positive effects which Caffeine brings to our health. Research has shown that one of the positive effects of Caffeine is that, is increased Human Behavior, especially when an individual consume a little of it, and avoiding over consumption. According to a Research performed in the Cardiff University, at the Center of Health Psychology, of the School of Psychology, researchers have pointed out some key positive effects of Caffeine to human’s health. (The literature suggests that the following effects on behavior of adult humans may occur when individuals consume moderate amounts of caffeine. (1) Caffeine increases alertness and reduces fatigue. This may be especially important in low arousal situations (e.g. working at night). (2) Caffeine improves performance on vigilance tasks and simple tasks that require sustained response†. (Effects of caffeine on human behavior). Other positive effects of Caffeine to human health include that, as one of the key ingredients of the coffee is Caffeine, thus its gives human being a very good stimulant to the nervous system. Additionally, Caffeine also helps to remedy the cool negative effects to human’s health, diuretics, aspirin, and it’s

Trial court brief Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Trial court brief - Essay Example This memorandum is submitted in opposition to that motion. QUESTION PRESENTED Under the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act can a negligence claim be stated when a lessor who is self-insured fails to carry insurance. STATEMENT OF THE CASE Sage Rent-A-Car Inc. leased a vehicle to Jeffery Calvin. Mr. Calvin failed to stop at a stop sign and collided with Jane White. Sage did not bear insurance. Ms. White filed a negligent complaint against Sage Rent-A-Car Inc. for the negligent use of the lessor’s vehicle by the lessee. Sage filed a motion to dismiss the complaint under Rule 1-012B (6) for failure to state claim. ARGUMENT MS. WHITE’S ARGUMENT THAT SAGE HAS DUTY TO ASSUME RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ACCIDENT IS A SET OF FACTS WHICH, IF PROVEN, WOULD ESTABLISH THE DEFENDANTS DUTY TO CARRY LICENSE AND, THEREFORE, A CLAIM CAN BE STATED AS TO DUTY. This matter is before the court on a Rule 1-012B (6) motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim. In the case Las Lumarias of the N.M. Council v. Isengard, 92 N.M. 297, 300-301 (1978), the New Mexico District Court established the standard for the granting of a 1-012B (6) motion. The court stated, â€Å"A motion to dismiss a complaint is properly granted only when it appears that the plaintiff cannot recover or be entitled to relief under any state of facts provable under the claim†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Sage Rent-A-Car’s motion specifically alleges that a claim cannot be stated in this case with regard to duty. To survive this motion, Ms. White must demonstrate that there is a provable set of facts that would establish the duty of Sage Rent-A-Car Inc. to carry license in this case. The Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act establishes the prevention of a motor owner from permitting the operation of an uninsured motor vehicle. Section 66-5-205 sets out the duty of Sage Rent-A-Car Inc. It provides, â€Å"No owner shall permit the operation of an uninsured motor vehicle, or a motor vehicle for which evidence o f financial responsibility as was affirmed to the department is not currently valid, upon the streets or highways of New Mexico unless the vehicle is specifically exempted from the provisions of the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Section 66-5-218 sets out the procedure for acquiring evidence of financial responsibility: Evidence of financial responsibility, when required under the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act, may be given by filing: A. evidence of a motor vehicle insurance policy; B. a surety bond as provided in Section 66-5-225 NMSA 1978; or C. A certificate of deposit of money as provided in Section 66-5-226 NMSA 1978. Section 66-5-207 provides for exempted motor vehicles. It provides, â€Å"The following motor vehicles are exempt from the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act; D. A motor vehicle approved as self-insured by the superintendent of insurance pursuant to Section 66-5-207, 1 NMSA 1978:†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The Act provides for the conditions under which an owner may permit an uninsured vehicle to operate. It specifies for the exceptions to this rule, and this includes motor vehicles approved as self-insured by the superintendent of insurance. Ms. White’s complaint states that Sage is required to carry a license under the provisions of

Contemporary Scenario of Service Industry Essay

Contemporary Scenario of Service Industry - Essay Example In this paper, the researcher has discussed on various strategies and models adopted by service industries to attain competitive advantage and identifying the key success factors of the behind accomplishing their corporate image. The service sector is the portion of the economy that generally produces intangible goods. Throughout the world, service sector faces a high level of competition as there are many buyers and seller in the market. Producing service trend generally requires less natural capital and more human capital. One of the major benefits of growing service sector is less pressure on the local and global environment (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990). Presently developing countries give more emphasis on service sector in comparison to the other sectors. In the modern world, the growth of service sector is particularly important as it allows employing educated labor force and thus, reducing unemployment and economic crisis. In the service sector, service quality is one of the basic tools to gain competitive advantage. As defined by West and DeCastro (2001), there is no proper definition of the service quality due to the existence of discrepancies among the people. Measuring service quality is the most recurrent topic in management literature. However, (Youndt et al. 1996) described that perceived service quality by the people is the best way to measure attributes of the service over which the company has control. Youndt et al. (1996) developed a conceptual framework of service quality where they identified five major gaps that could impact customer’s evaluation of service qualities in various industries in service sectors, for instance, banking, tourists, event,  and hospitality. These gaps were: Service firms may not always understand what service or features they must have in their product to meet needs of the customers, or what level of features needed to be added in order to deliver high-quality service. This gap arises when firms positively identify wants of the customers, but the means to deliver service according to their expectation does not exist (Godard, 2001).

Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India

Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India INTRODUCTION Angiosperms or flowering plants (also called Angiospermae, Magnoliophyta, or Anthophyta) are the most diverse group of the plant kingdom, comprising of about 2,50,000 species in 350 families (Kenrick, 1999). Flowering plants are by far the most numerous, diverse, and â€Å"successful† extant plant group, containing well over 95% of all land plant species alive today (Simpson, 2006). Angiosperms are characterized by (i) seeds produced within a carpel with a stigmatic surface for pollen germination, (ii) a much reduced female gametophyte, consisting in most cases of just eight nuclei in seven cells; and (3) double fertilization, leading to the formation of a typically triploid nutritive tissue called endosperm (Judd et al., 2002). Several apomorphies distinguish the angiosperms from all other land plants: (1) the flower, usually with an associated perianth, (2) stamens with two lateral thecae, each composed of two microsporangia, (3) a reduced, 3-nucleate male gametophyte, (4) c arpels and fruit formation, (5) ovules with two integuments, (6) a reduced, 8-nucleate female gametophyte, (7) endosperm formation and (8) sieve tube members (Simpson, 2006). Some of these apomorphic features, which represent the product of a unique evolutionary event, have become further modified in particular lineages of angiosperms. Almost all angiosperms produce vessels in the xylem tissue, though this feature probably evolved within the group. Angiosperm phloem differs from that of all other plants in having sieve tube elements accompanied by one or more â€Å"companion cells† that are derived from the same mother cell. Flowering plants grow in virtually every habitable region and are dominant in some aquatic and most terrestrial ecosystems, the notable exception to the latter being coniferous forests. Angiosperms comprise the great bulk of our economically important plants, including our most valuable food crops. India with a geographical area of about 32, 87,263 sq km is the seventh largest and tenth industrialized country of the world. It is situated between 804 N to 3706 N latitude and 6807 E to 97025 E longitude. The longitudinal variation divides Indian subcontinent into four climatological zones, viz., equatorial, tropical, subtropical and warm temperate. The forest cover of the country have been estimated to be 6, 37,293 km2 (19.39% of the geographic area of the country) and includes dense forest (3, 77,358 km2), open forest (2, 55,064 km2) and mangrove (4,871 km2). India represents about 11% of world’s flora in just about 2.4% of total land mass. Out of the 25 biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ identified in the world (Myers, 1990), India has two, namely Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats. These hotspots posses majority of plant diversity in India. In terms of species diversity, approximately 45,000 plant species are found in India (Khoshoo, 1994, 1995; Sharma et al., 1997). The angiosperms are represented by c. 17,500 species out of which 5725 species are endemic to India. About 28% of the total Indian flora and about 33% of angiosperms occurring in India are endemic (Nayar, 1996). It is roughly estimated that about 10% of flowering plant species in India are threatened and 34 plant species have been reported to be extinct (Nayar and Sastry, 1987-1990). The studies on Indian plants were first initiated by the European visitors. Even before the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus (1753), Hendrik Van Rheede (1678-1703) started publication of his monumental 12 volume work ‘Hortus Malabaricus’. However, actual work on Indian flora was initiated by Roxburgh (1814, 1820- 1824) and later by Hooker and Thompson (1855). The publication of Flora of British India by Sir J.D. Hooker (1872- 1897) gave a stimulus to taxonomic studies in our country and since then several regional and state floras have been published. In 1954, Botanical Survey of India was revived with a view to make intensive studies of local flora especially to gather precise information on the identity, floristic diversity, distribution, ecological association, phenology, medicinal and economic uses of plants. India is immensely rich in biological diversity. Such richness is largely due to varied physical environment, latitude, altitude, geology and climate. The climate and altitudinal variations coupled with varied ecological habitats have contributed in the development of immensely rich vegetation wealth, and varied flora and fauna forming a very unique biodiversity. Seeing the rich plant diversity, Hooker (1904) commented that ‘The Indian flora is more varied than that of any other country of equal area in the eastern hemisphere, if not on the globe’. The Indian flora represents taxa occurring in different countries including Afghanistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Indo-China. There are even the representatives from African, American, Australian and European countries. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Bio-geographical Territories in World The Indian region is one of the most diverse bio-geographic regions of the world having wide ranging topography from permanently snow covered high Himalayan ranges to plains at sea level, low lying swamps and mangroves, island systems, tropical evergreen rain forests, fertile alluvial plains, hot deserts and high altitude cold deserts. The climate ranges from tropical and sub-tropical in Indo-Gangetic plains and in the peninsular regions to temperate and arctic in the Himalayan region. Biogeographically India represents two of the major realms (Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes. Considering the vastness of the country and variation pattern in different areas, the country is divided into ten botanical regions with distinct bioclimatic conditions. These include: Coromandal coast, Malabar, Indus plain, Indian desert, Gangetic plain, Assam, Eastern Himalaya, Central Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep and minicoy group of islands (Mudgal and Hajra, 1997). India harbors very diverse climatic conditions and thus fosters different types of habitats. The major mountain ranges in India are the Himalaya and the Western Ghats. The Indian Himalayan region is spread over the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, and a part of Assam, along with eight districts of Uttarakhand and one district of West Bengal. Biogeographically, the Indian Himalayan region falls under Boreal Zone which has two sub-zones, viz., Sino-Siberian and Sino-Himalayan. The area can be divided into four distinct zones longitudinally: (i) the Siwalik (900 – 1500 m), (ii) the outer Himalaya (1500 – 3500 m), (iii) the middle or lesser Himalaya (3600 – 4600 m), and (iv) the Greater Himalaya (above 4,600 m). This complex mountain system consists of narrow and deep valleys, glaciers and fertile terrain. Five climatic zones can be delineated in the Himalayan region based on geographic and physiographic factors. These are: (1) Warm tropical, (2) Warm sub-tropical, (3) Cool temperate, (4) Alpine and (5) Arctic. While these are only broad zonations, there are many local variations in the climate due to precipitation, temperature, wind patterns, humidity etc. The type and nature of soils also vary vastly in the Himalayan region from deep alluvial to the thin and bare soils of the high mountains. The nature of the soil depends upon the rocks, the prevailing climatic conditions, topography and vegetation. According to Udvardy (1975), biodiversity exists on earth in 8 broad realms with 193 bio-geographical provinces. It has been estimated that world’s 12 countries Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru and Zaire together hold 70% of its total flowering plant diversity. These countries have been termed as â€Å"Megadiversity† countries (Mc Neely et al., 1990) Rodgers and Panwar (1990) have divided India into 10 phytogeographic zones and 24 biotic provinces. Gadgil and Meher-Homji (1990) have recognized 16 phytogeographical zones in India. On the other hand, Das (1996) has recognized 9 physiographic regions within the Indian Territory. Chowdhery and Murti (2000) have recognized 11 phytogeographic regions for India, each of which have its uniqueness in ecosystem, vegetation and floristic composition. These phytogeographic regions are: Western Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya, Gangetic plains, North East India, Semi arid and Arid regions, Deccan Plateau, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshdweep and Coastal regions. Distribution of Angiosperms in India In India, the vascular plants form the most dominant and conspicuous vegetation cover comprising of over 17,500 species of angiosperms which represents more than 7% of the worlds known flowering plant species (Hooker, 1872-1897; Karthikeyan et al., 1989; Sharma and Balakrishnan, 1993; Sharma and Sanjappa, 1993; Sharma et al., 1993; Hajra et al., 1995; Mudgal and Hajra 1997- 1999; Singh et al., 2000; Karthikeyan, 2000). These species are distributed in more than 4000 genera occurring in diffenent ecosystems from the humid tropics of Western Ghats to the Alpine zones of the Himalayas and from Mangrooves of tidal Sunderbans to the dry desert of Rajasthan. In India, dicots are represented by 2,282 genera and 12,750 species whereas monocots are represented by 702 genera and 4,250 species. Dicots account for c. 75% of flowering plants in terms of both genera and species. On the other hand, remaining 25% is contributed by monocots. Out of 511 recognized plant families (Brummit, 1992), 320 families with more than 4000 genera are represented in the Indian flora. Of which Poaceae is the largest family with about 263 genera and more than 1200 species. In India, over 60 families of flowering plants are monotypic, e.g., Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Turneraceae, Tetracentraceae, etc. Asragaluts, Carex, Dendrobium, Ficus, Habenaria, Impatiens, Primula, Rhododendron, Saussurea, Taraxacum, etc. are some of the dominant genera of flowering plants in India. Out of the estimated 17,500 species of angiosperms, approximately 15% species are trees which include some of the highly valued timber species of the world and belong to the families like Annonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Moraceae, Meliaceae, Verbenaceae, etc. There are several botanical curiosities like Aeginetia indica, Balanophora dioica, Boschiniackia himalaica, Drosera, Epipogium, Galeola, Mitrastemon yamamotoi, Monotropa, Nepenthes khasiana, Pinguicula, Sapria himalayana, Utricularia spp., etc. Species in certain groups like Orchids, Bamboos, Rhododendrons, Citrus, Hedychiums, Impatiens, Pedicularis, Primulas, etc. exhibit remarkable diversity in India (Rao, 1994). Dominant angiospermic families in India are given in table1 (after Groombridge, 1992; Sharma et al., 1997). Table 1. Dominant families of dicots and monocots Insectivorous and parasitic plants The carnivorous plants (insectivorous plants) trap and digest insects to meet the requirement of nitrogen deficiency. Altogether over 450 species of carnivorous plants have been reported of which approximately 30 species occur in India. The insectivorous taxa belong to family Droseraceae (3 spp.), Nepenthaceae (1 spcies) and Lentibulariaceae (36 spp.). The parasitic plant species are prominent in Loranthaceae (46 spp.), Santalaceae (10 spp.), Balanophoraceae (6 spp.), Rafflesiaceae (1 spp.), Cuscutaceae (12 spp.) and Orobanchaceae (54 spp.). Aquatic plants About 2 percent of all flowering plants known in the world inhabit water bodies and more than 50 percent of these are represented in Indian subcontinent (Lavania et al., 1990). Some important aquatic plants families are: Alismataceae (8 spp.), Aponogetonaceae (6 spp.), Azollaceae (1 sp.), Barclayaceae (2 spp.), Butomaceae (1 sp.), Cabombaceae (2 spp.), Callitrichaceae (3 species), Isoetaceae (10 spp.), Lemnaceae (14 spp.), Najadaceae (7 spp.), Nelumbonaceae (1 sp.), Nymphaeaceae (7 spp.), Podostemaceae (24 spp.), Pontederiaceae (13 spp.), Ceratophyllaceae (3 spp.), Hydrocharitaceae (13 spp.), Potamogetonaceae (18 spp.), Ruppiaceae (1 sp.), Salviniaceae (3 spp.), Trapaceae (2 spp.), Typhaceae (4 spp.), Zannichelliaceae (1 sp.), etc. The members of families Podostemaceae and Tristichaceae grow on rocks under water in fast flowing streams. The aquatic plants in India are highly diversified comprising free-floating forms (Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna perpusila, Nymphoides hydrophylla, Trapa natans var. bispinosa, Pistia stratiotes, Wolffia microscopia, W. globosa), rooted aquatics with their foliage floating (Nymphaea nouchali, N. stellata, Euryale ferox, Nelumbo nucifera), submerged aquatics (Vallisnaria natans, Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea, Potamogeton pectinatus) emergent aquatics (Scirpus maritimus, Cyperus articulates, Sagittaria trifolia, S. guayanensis subsp. leppula) and marsh plants (Ranunculus scleratus, Hydrolea zeylanica, Panicum paludosum, Polygonum barbatum, P. glabrum). The aquatic flora play an important role as water purifier by absorbing heavy metals, e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum (chromium), Bacopa monnieri (copper and cadmium). Limosella aquatica, Hippuris vulgaris occur in subalpine-alpine lakes. Mangroves Mangroves are the plants that inhabit coastal regions and estuaries. They are adapted to survive under marshy conditions. In India, mangroves cover an area of approximately 6700 Km ² which constitutes c. 7 percent of the world’s mangroves. The largest stretch of mangroves in India occurs in Sunderbans (West Bengal) which covers an area of about 4200 km ². It has been designated as World Heritage site of which 80% of them are restricted to Sunderbans (West Bengal) and Andaman Nicobar islands (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). The remaining taxa are scattered in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa and Karnataka. Some of the dominant mangrove species include Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera fomes, Lumnitzera spp., Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, R. stylosa, Sonneratia spp., Xylocarpus spp., etc. The shrubby Aegialitis rotundifolia and Acanthus ilicifolius are common o n poor saline plains. The herbaceous succulent halophytes are represented by Aegiceras corniculatus, Suaeda brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Salicornia brachiata. The characteristic mangrove palms are: Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa. Indicator species Some species of angiosperms growing on metalliferous soils accumulate large amounts of metals in their roots and reflect the levels of metal present in the soil (indicators). For example, presence of copper is indicated by Astragalus spp., Croton roxburghii, Hyptis suaveolens, Holarrhena pubescens, Impatiens balsamina, Vernonia cinerea, and indicates presence of Uranium (Aery, 1977; Venkatesh, 1964, 1966). Diversification of Primitive and Advanced Families The primitive families are confined to those regions which are very old in geological time scale in comparison to the newly developed areas. Assam, North-east Indian region and Deccan Peninsula are older in comparison to the other phytogeographical regions of India. These regions are more or less identical in age with Sri Lanka, South West Chinese region and Malay Peninsula. The Deccan Peninsula shows its floristic relationship with Sri Lanka and Malay provinces, while the North east India shows its floristic relationship with Myanmar, South West Chinese Provinces and Malay Peninsula. Thus the Malay region shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula on one hand and North east India on the other. By this way the North East India shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula to some extent (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). India (Eastern Himalaya including North east India) is considered as a sanctuary of primitive flowering plants. The occurrence of such a large number of primitive angiosperms led Takhtajan (1969) to designate this region as the ‘Cradle of Flowering Plants’ where angiosperms have diversified (Table 2) Table.2. Primitive flowering plants occurring in India (after Rao, 1994) The advanced families occur in those areas which are comparatively very young in the geological time scale. On the basis of this idea it can be stated that the Himalayan region of India is very young in its age as compared to Deccan Peninsula and North East Indian regions of India, as it harbours most of the advanced families with well diversified restricted genera and species. A comparative account of diversification of primitive and advanced families of India and its adjoining area is given in table 3. The advanced families are young in their age and also they are confined to the areas which are also geologically young, they are unable to spread in the wider regions. On the other hand, primitive plant families are older in their age and also found to confined in those areas which are geologically very old. So they get sufficient time to spread over larger areas, as a result of which the primitive families show less number of restricted genera and species in their credit in comparison to the advanced families (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). Habitats Different ecological habitats occur in India ranging from tropical rainforest, subtropical savanna or shrublands, temperate forest, alpine mosses to xerophytic variation of desert. The habitat types vary from the humid tropical Western Ghats to the hot deserts of Rajasthan, from cold deserts of Ladakh to the long, warm cost line stretches of peninsular India. While Cherrapunji and Mawphlong in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya are the two wettest places on earth, Dras in Ladakh is the coldest inhabited place of the world. Phytogeographically, the eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floristic region. The area comprises Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring states of northern India along a continuous sector of the Yunnan province in south-west China. In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many of which overlap those of India, Bhutan and even Yunnan. Of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be endemic to Nepal. Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%) are considered to be endemic to the eastern Himalaya (Anonymous 1999). This region is the meeting ground of the Indo-Malayan, Afro-tropic and Indo-Chinese biogeographical realms as well as the Himalayan and Peninsular Indian elements, formed when the peninsular plate struck against the Asian landmass, after it broke off from Gondwana land. The region is recognized as refugium of flowering plants and center of active speciation (Rao, 1994). The numerous primitive angiosperm families found in this region inclu de Degeneriaceae, Eupomatiaceae, Himantandraceae, Lardizalbalaceae, Magnoliaceae, Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, Winteraceae. The primitive genera are Alnus, Aspidocarya, Betula, Decaisnea, Euptelea, Exbucklandia, Haematocarpus, Holboellia, Houttuynia, Magnolia, Mangelietia, Pycnarrhena, and Tetracentrol (Malhotra and Hajra 1977). Regions of High Diversity India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. It represents an example of conglomeration of diverse bioclimates influenced by neighbouring areas (particularly Mediterranean), the unique location, peninsular land mass, Gangetic plains and the crown of complex chain of mountain systems – the Himalaya. The Himalayan region with only 18% of India’s land area, houses 81.4% of the country’s stock of gymnosperms, 47% of angiosperms, 59.5% of lichens, 58.7% of pteridophytes, 43.9% of bryophytes and 53.07% of fungi found in India. Orchidaceae with over 1331 taxa (S. Misra, 2007) is one of the dominant families and probably the second largest among all families of flowering plant known from India. Of these 407 taxa are endemic to India. Out of the 18 monotypic orchid genera of India, 13 are found in the Himalayan region. In the Eastern Himalaya, the Orchid family is the largest, with 60% species, whereas in the Western Himalaya, Asteraceae with 540 species is the largest family followed by Poaceae with 439 species and Fabaceae with 362 species. Carex with more than 100 species and infraspecific categories is the largest genus in the Himalaya. Rhododendron with 96 species and infra-specific categories, and Astragalus with 90 species, is the largest genera in the Eastern and Western Himalaya, respectively. Some other plants with pronounced diversity in the Eastern Himalaya include the Hedychium (Zingiberaceae) with 18 species out of 35 Indian species, and numerous species of bamboos. The Eastern Himalaya is a cradle of numerous primitive angiosperms, such as Manglietia and Euptelea (Magnoliaceae) and Tetracentron (Tetracentraceae). Christollea himalayensis, recorded from Mt. Camet is the flowering plant occurring at the highest altitude (6300 msl). Arceuthobium minutissimum, (small angiosperm) grows on Himalayan conifers. Apart from these botanical curios, the Himalayan region has a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants. The floristic richness has also rendered the North-Eastern region and Western Ghats to be recognized as two hotspots among 25 hotspots identified throughout the world. The humid tropical conditions met within these regions not only support exceptionally diverse vegetation but have also resulted in speciation in several genera, thus adding to the high endemicity of the flora (Nayar, 1996). In addition to these two, there are about 40 other sites in different phytogeographical zones of India which have high degree of endemism and genetic diversity. Mc Neely et al. (1990) estimated that 70% of worlds total flowering plants occur in 12 countries and these have been designated as Mega diversity centres or mega ­biodiversity country. The earth’s 25 biodiversity hotspot regions collectively cover about 2% of the planet’s land surface, yet claim more than 50% of all terrestrial species diversity. They have within them a phenomenal 1, 25,635 plant species. The top 11 hotspots (out of 25) for plant endemism harbor 5000 or more species as endemics. It accounts for 93,214 plant species, or 37.3% of the total global plant endemics (Myers 1988). Western Ghats The Western Ghats, which covers an area of approximately 1, 60,000 Km ², are among the 25 biodiversity hotspots globally identified. The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats, coupled with the regions complex geography, produces a great variety of vegetation types. These include scrub forests in the low-lying rain shadow areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters. Based on the ecological factors and floristic composition, four major forests and 23 floristic types have been identified. Eastern Himalaya Eastern Himalaya covering the states of Sikkim, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland is the richest of the phytogeographic regions of India affording the highest plant/ animal diversity (Rao, 1994). This region is characterized by high rainfall and humidity. The abundant rains and high humidity contribute the occurrence of largest number of species in this region. North eastern region of India, blessed with wide range of physiography and ecoclimatic conditions, is the richest biodiversity centres of the Indian subcontinent (Hooker and Thompson, 1855; Hooker, 1905; Chatterjee, 1962; Rao, 1974). The north eastern India has a geographical area of about 2, 55,050 Km ². The rich plant wealth of this region has been reported by Hooker (1854). Further, Hooker’s work on â€Å"Flora of British India† (1872-97) and â€Å"Sketches on Flora of British India† (1905), presents a very detailed account on vegetation and flora of this region. Kanjilal et al. (1934-1940), in their â€Å"Flora of Assam† have provided a detailed account with emphasis on woody flora of this region. There are works on â€Å"Forest flora of Meghalaya† by Haridasan and Rao (1985, 1987) and â€Å"Grasses of North eastern India† by Shukla (1996). There are several genera endemic to Eastern Himalaya. Some important endemic genera are Aucuba, Bryocarpum, Pleurospermopsis, Gamblea, Lepidostemon, Parajaeschkaea, Paroxygraphis, Risleya, Sphaerosacme, Treutlera and Brachycaulos. Cyathopus is endemic to Sikkim. Some genera like Biswarea, Hymenandra, Jejosephia, Neoluffa, Pauia, etc. are endemic to North eastern India. Some important Eastern Himalayan endemic species are Abies densa, Agapetes incurvata, A. sikkimensis, Dipsacus atratus, Eriobotrya hookeriana, Geum macrosepalum, Larix griffithiana, Lindera heterophylla, Liparis perpusilla, Lloydia flavonutans, Maddenia himalica, Meconopsis grandis, M. superba, M. villosa, Myricaria albiflora, Primula whitei, Rhododendron baileyi, R. camelliaeflorum, R. ciliatum, R. glaucophyllum, R. grande, R. lantanum, R. lindleyi, R. wallichii, R .wightii, Rubus fragarioides, Sassurea conica, Acanthus leucostachys, Aconitum assamicum, Anoectochilus sikkimensis, Aeschynanthus parasiticus, Baliospermum micranthum, Berberis dasyclada, Calamus leptospadix, Calanthe densiflora, Capparis acutifolia, Cotoneaster assamensis, etc. (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000) Plant Diversity in Western Himalaya The Western Himalayan region is one of the 12 biogeographic regions of India and includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal. This region constitutes the alpine zone, temperate, humid and warm climatic conditions. The main portion of Western Himalaya lies in J K state comprising 67.5 Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India INTRODUCTION Angiosperms or flowering plants (also called Angiospermae, Magnoliophyta, or Anthophyta) are the most diverse group of the plant kingdom, comprising of about 2,50,000 species in 350 families (Kenrick, 1999). Flowering plants are by far the most numerous, diverse, and â€Å"successful† extant plant group, containing well over 95% of all land plant species alive today (Simpson, 2006). Angiosperms are characterized by (i) seeds produced within a carpel with a stigmatic surface for pollen germination, (ii) a much reduced female gametophyte, consisting in most cases of just eight nuclei in seven cells; and (3) double fertilization, leading to the formation of a typically triploid nutritive tissue called endosperm (Judd et al., 2002). Several apomorphies distinguish the angiosperms from all other land plants: (1) the flower, usually with an associated perianth, (2) stamens with two lateral thecae, each composed of two microsporangia, (3) a reduced, 3-nucleate male gametophyte, (4) c arpels and fruit formation, (5) ovules with two integuments, (6) a reduced, 8-nucleate female gametophyte, (7) endosperm formation and (8) sieve tube members (Simpson, 2006). Some of these apomorphic features, which represent the product of a unique evolutionary event, have become further modified in particular lineages of angiosperms. Almost all angiosperms produce vessels in the xylem tissue, though this feature probably evolved within the group. Angiosperm phloem differs from that of all other plants in having sieve tube elements accompanied by one or more â€Å"companion cells† that are derived from the same mother cell. Flowering plants grow in virtually every habitable region and are dominant in some aquatic and most terrestrial ecosystems, the notable exception to the latter being coniferous forests. Angiosperms comprise the great bulk of our economically important plants, including our most valuable food crops. India with a geographical area of about 32, 87,263 sq km is the seventh largest and tenth industrialized country of the world. It is situated between 804 N to 3706 N latitude and 6807 E to 97025 E longitude. The longitudinal variation divides Indian subcontinent into four climatological zones, viz., equatorial, tropical, subtropical and warm temperate. The forest cover of the country have been estimated to be 6, 37,293 km2 (19.39% of the geographic area of the country) and includes dense forest (3, 77,358 km2), open forest (2, 55,064 km2) and mangrove (4,871 km2). India represents about 11% of world’s flora in just about 2.4% of total land mass. Out of the 25 biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ identified in the world (Myers, 1990), India has two, namely Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats. These hotspots posses majority of plant diversity in India. In terms of species diversity, approximately 45,000 plant species are found in India (Khoshoo, 1994, 1995; Sharma et al., 1997). The angiosperms are represented by c. 17,500 species out of which 5725 species are endemic to India. About 28% of the total Indian flora and about 33% of angiosperms occurring in India are endemic (Nayar, 1996). It is roughly estimated that about 10% of flowering plant species in India are threatened and 34 plant species have been reported to be extinct (Nayar and Sastry, 1987-1990). The studies on Indian plants were first initiated by the European visitors. Even before the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus (1753), Hendrik Van Rheede (1678-1703) started publication of his monumental 12 volume work ‘Hortus Malabaricus’. However, actual work on Indian flora was initiated by Roxburgh (1814, 1820- 1824) and later by Hooker and Thompson (1855). The publication of Flora of British India by Sir J.D. Hooker (1872- 1897) gave a stimulus to taxonomic studies in our country and since then several regional and state floras have been published. In 1954, Botanical Survey of India was revived with a view to make intensive studies of local flora especially to gather precise information on the identity, floristic diversity, distribution, ecological association, phenology, medicinal and economic uses of plants. India is immensely rich in biological diversity. Such richness is largely due to varied physical environment, latitude, altitude, geology and climate. The climate and altitudinal variations coupled with varied ecological habitats have contributed in the development of immensely rich vegetation wealth, and varied flora and fauna forming a very unique biodiversity. Seeing the rich plant diversity, Hooker (1904) commented that ‘The Indian flora is more varied than that of any other country of equal area in the eastern hemisphere, if not on the globe’. The Indian flora represents taxa occurring in different countries including Afghanistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Indo-China. There are even the representatives from African, American, Australian and European countries. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Bio-geographical Territories in World The Indian region is one of the most diverse bio-geographic regions of the world having wide ranging topography from permanently snow covered high Himalayan ranges to plains at sea level, low lying swamps and mangroves, island systems, tropical evergreen rain forests, fertile alluvial plains, hot deserts and high altitude cold deserts. The climate ranges from tropical and sub-tropical in Indo-Gangetic plains and in the peninsular regions to temperate and arctic in the Himalayan region. Biogeographically India represents two of the major realms (Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes. Considering the vastness of the country and variation pattern in different areas, the country is divided into ten botanical regions with distinct bioclimatic conditions. These include: Coromandal coast, Malabar, Indus plain, Indian desert, Gangetic plain, Assam, Eastern Himalaya, Central Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep and minicoy group of islands (Mudgal and Hajra, 1997). India harbors very diverse climatic conditions and thus fosters different types of habitats. The major mountain ranges in India are the Himalaya and the Western Ghats. The Indian Himalayan region is spread over the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, and a part of Assam, along with eight districts of Uttarakhand and one district of West Bengal. Biogeographically, the Indian Himalayan region falls under Boreal Zone which has two sub-zones, viz., Sino-Siberian and Sino-Himalayan. The area can be divided into four distinct zones longitudinally: (i) the Siwalik (900 – 1500 m), (ii) the outer Himalaya (1500 – 3500 m), (iii) the middle or lesser Himalaya (3600 – 4600 m), and (iv) the Greater Himalaya (above 4,600 m). This complex mountain system consists of narrow and deep valleys, glaciers and fertile terrain. Five climatic zones can be delineated in the Himalayan region based on geographic and physiographic factors. These are: (1) Warm tropical, (2) Warm sub-tropical, (3) Cool temperate, (4) Alpine and (5) Arctic. While these are only broad zonations, there are many local variations in the climate due to precipitation, temperature, wind patterns, humidity etc. The type and nature of soils also vary vastly in the Himalayan region from deep alluvial to the thin and bare soils of the high mountains. The nature of the soil depends upon the rocks, the prevailing climatic conditions, topography and vegetation. According to Udvardy (1975), biodiversity exists on earth in 8 broad realms with 193 bio-geographical provinces. It has been estimated that world’s 12 countries Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru and Zaire together hold 70% of its total flowering plant diversity. These countries have been termed as â€Å"Megadiversity† countries (Mc Neely et al., 1990) Rodgers and Panwar (1990) have divided India into 10 phytogeographic zones and 24 biotic provinces. Gadgil and Meher-Homji (1990) have recognized 16 phytogeographical zones in India. On the other hand, Das (1996) has recognized 9 physiographic regions within the Indian Territory. Chowdhery and Murti (2000) have recognized 11 phytogeographic regions for India, each of which have its uniqueness in ecosystem, vegetation and floristic composition. These phytogeographic regions are: Western Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya, Gangetic plains, North East India, Semi arid and Arid regions, Deccan Plateau, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshdweep and Coastal regions. Distribution of Angiosperms in India In India, the vascular plants form the most dominant and conspicuous vegetation cover comprising of over 17,500 species of angiosperms which represents more than 7% of the worlds known flowering plant species (Hooker, 1872-1897; Karthikeyan et al., 1989; Sharma and Balakrishnan, 1993; Sharma and Sanjappa, 1993; Sharma et al., 1993; Hajra et al., 1995; Mudgal and Hajra 1997- 1999; Singh et al., 2000; Karthikeyan, 2000). These species are distributed in more than 4000 genera occurring in diffenent ecosystems from the humid tropics of Western Ghats to the Alpine zones of the Himalayas and from Mangrooves of tidal Sunderbans to the dry desert of Rajasthan. In India, dicots are represented by 2,282 genera and 12,750 species whereas monocots are represented by 702 genera and 4,250 species. Dicots account for c. 75% of flowering plants in terms of both genera and species. On the other hand, remaining 25% is contributed by monocots. Out of 511 recognized plant families (Brummit, 1992), 320 families with more than 4000 genera are represented in the Indian flora. Of which Poaceae is the largest family with about 263 genera and more than 1200 species. In India, over 60 families of flowering plants are monotypic, e.g., Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Turneraceae, Tetracentraceae, etc. Asragaluts, Carex, Dendrobium, Ficus, Habenaria, Impatiens, Primula, Rhododendron, Saussurea, Taraxacum, etc. are some of the dominant genera of flowering plants in India. Out of the estimated 17,500 species of angiosperms, approximately 15% species are trees which include some of the highly valued timber species of the world and belong to the families like Annonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Moraceae, Meliaceae, Verbenaceae, etc. There are several botanical curiosities like Aeginetia indica, Balanophora dioica, Boschiniackia himalaica, Drosera, Epipogium, Galeola, Mitrastemon yamamotoi, Monotropa, Nepenthes khasiana, Pinguicula, Sapria himalayana, Utricularia spp., etc. Species in certain groups like Orchids, Bamboos, Rhododendrons, Citrus, Hedychiums, Impatiens, Pedicularis, Primulas, etc. exhibit remarkable diversity in India (Rao, 1994). Dominant angiospermic families in India are given in table1 (after Groombridge, 1992; Sharma et al., 1997). Table 1. Dominant families of dicots and monocots Insectivorous and parasitic plants The carnivorous plants (insectivorous plants) trap and digest insects to meet the requirement of nitrogen deficiency. Altogether over 450 species of carnivorous plants have been reported of which approximately 30 species occur in India. The insectivorous taxa belong to family Droseraceae (3 spp.), Nepenthaceae (1 spcies) and Lentibulariaceae (36 spp.). The parasitic plant species are prominent in Loranthaceae (46 spp.), Santalaceae (10 spp.), Balanophoraceae (6 spp.), Rafflesiaceae (1 spp.), Cuscutaceae (12 spp.) and Orobanchaceae (54 spp.). Aquatic plants About 2 percent of all flowering plants known in the world inhabit water bodies and more than 50 percent of these are represented in Indian subcontinent (Lavania et al., 1990). Some important aquatic plants families are: Alismataceae (8 spp.), Aponogetonaceae (6 spp.), Azollaceae (1 sp.), Barclayaceae (2 spp.), Butomaceae (1 sp.), Cabombaceae (2 spp.), Callitrichaceae (3 species), Isoetaceae (10 spp.), Lemnaceae (14 spp.), Najadaceae (7 spp.), Nelumbonaceae (1 sp.), Nymphaeaceae (7 spp.), Podostemaceae (24 spp.), Pontederiaceae (13 spp.), Ceratophyllaceae (3 spp.), Hydrocharitaceae (13 spp.), Potamogetonaceae (18 spp.), Ruppiaceae (1 sp.), Salviniaceae (3 spp.), Trapaceae (2 spp.), Typhaceae (4 spp.), Zannichelliaceae (1 sp.), etc. The members of families Podostemaceae and Tristichaceae grow on rocks under water in fast flowing streams. The aquatic plants in India are highly diversified comprising free-floating forms (Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna perpusila, Nymphoides hydrophylla, Trapa natans var. bispinosa, Pistia stratiotes, Wolffia microscopia, W. globosa), rooted aquatics with their foliage floating (Nymphaea nouchali, N. stellata, Euryale ferox, Nelumbo nucifera), submerged aquatics (Vallisnaria natans, Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea, Potamogeton pectinatus) emergent aquatics (Scirpus maritimus, Cyperus articulates, Sagittaria trifolia, S. guayanensis subsp. leppula) and marsh plants (Ranunculus scleratus, Hydrolea zeylanica, Panicum paludosum, Polygonum barbatum, P. glabrum). The aquatic flora play an important role as water purifier by absorbing heavy metals, e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum (chromium), Bacopa monnieri (copper and cadmium). Limosella aquatica, Hippuris vulgaris occur in subalpine-alpine lakes. Mangroves Mangroves are the plants that inhabit coastal regions and estuaries. They are adapted to survive under marshy conditions. In India, mangroves cover an area of approximately 6700 Km ² which constitutes c. 7 percent of the world’s mangroves. The largest stretch of mangroves in India occurs in Sunderbans (West Bengal) which covers an area of about 4200 km ². It has been designated as World Heritage site of which 80% of them are restricted to Sunderbans (West Bengal) and Andaman Nicobar islands (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). The remaining taxa are scattered in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa and Karnataka. Some of the dominant mangrove species include Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera fomes, Lumnitzera spp., Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, R. stylosa, Sonneratia spp., Xylocarpus spp., etc. The shrubby Aegialitis rotundifolia and Acanthus ilicifolius are common o n poor saline plains. The herbaceous succulent halophytes are represented by Aegiceras corniculatus, Suaeda brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Salicornia brachiata. The characteristic mangrove palms are: Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa. Indicator species Some species of angiosperms growing on metalliferous soils accumulate large amounts of metals in their roots and reflect the levels of metal present in the soil (indicators). For example, presence of copper is indicated by Astragalus spp., Croton roxburghii, Hyptis suaveolens, Holarrhena pubescens, Impatiens balsamina, Vernonia cinerea, and indicates presence of Uranium (Aery, 1977; Venkatesh, 1964, 1966). Diversification of Primitive and Advanced Families The primitive families are confined to those regions which are very old in geological time scale in comparison to the newly developed areas. Assam, North-east Indian region and Deccan Peninsula are older in comparison to the other phytogeographical regions of India. These regions are more or less identical in age with Sri Lanka, South West Chinese region and Malay Peninsula. The Deccan Peninsula shows its floristic relationship with Sri Lanka and Malay provinces, while the North east India shows its floristic relationship with Myanmar, South West Chinese Provinces and Malay Peninsula. Thus the Malay region shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula on one hand and North east India on the other. By this way the North East India shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula to some extent (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). India (Eastern Himalaya including North east India) is considered as a sanctuary of primitive flowering plants. The occurrence of such a large number of primitive angiosperms led Takhtajan (1969) to designate this region as the ‘Cradle of Flowering Plants’ where angiosperms have diversified (Table 2) Table.2. Primitive flowering plants occurring in India (after Rao, 1994) The advanced families occur in those areas which are comparatively very young in the geological time scale. On the basis of this idea it can be stated that the Himalayan region of India is very young in its age as compared to Deccan Peninsula and North East Indian regions of India, as it harbours most of the advanced families with well diversified restricted genera and species. A comparative account of diversification of primitive and advanced families of India and its adjoining area is given in table 3. The advanced families are young in their age and also they are confined to the areas which are also geologically young, they are unable to spread in the wider regions. On the other hand, primitive plant families are older in their age and also found to confined in those areas which are geologically very old. So they get sufficient time to spread over larger areas, as a result of which the primitive families show less number of restricted genera and species in their credit in comparison to the advanced families (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). Habitats Different ecological habitats occur in India ranging from tropical rainforest, subtropical savanna or shrublands, temperate forest, alpine mosses to xerophytic variation of desert. The habitat types vary from the humid tropical Western Ghats to the hot deserts of Rajasthan, from cold deserts of Ladakh to the long, warm cost line stretches of peninsular India. While Cherrapunji and Mawphlong in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya are the two wettest places on earth, Dras in Ladakh is the coldest inhabited place of the world. Phytogeographically, the eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floristic region. The area comprises Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring states of northern India along a continuous sector of the Yunnan province in south-west China. In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many of which overlap those of India, Bhutan and even Yunnan. Of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be endemic to Nepal. Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%) are considered to be endemic to the eastern Himalaya (Anonymous 1999). This region is the meeting ground of the Indo-Malayan, Afro-tropic and Indo-Chinese biogeographical realms as well as the Himalayan and Peninsular Indian elements, formed when the peninsular plate struck against the Asian landmass, after it broke off from Gondwana land. The region is recognized as refugium of flowering plants and center of active speciation (Rao, 1994). The numerous primitive angiosperm families found in this region inclu de Degeneriaceae, Eupomatiaceae, Himantandraceae, Lardizalbalaceae, Magnoliaceae, Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, Winteraceae. The primitive genera are Alnus, Aspidocarya, Betula, Decaisnea, Euptelea, Exbucklandia, Haematocarpus, Holboellia, Houttuynia, Magnolia, Mangelietia, Pycnarrhena, and Tetracentrol (Malhotra and Hajra 1977). Regions of High Diversity India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. It represents an example of conglomeration of diverse bioclimates influenced by neighbouring areas (particularly Mediterranean), the unique location, peninsular land mass, Gangetic plains and the crown of complex chain of mountain systems – the Himalaya. The Himalayan region with only 18% of India’s land area, houses 81.4% of the country’s stock of gymnosperms, 47% of angiosperms, 59.5% of lichens, 58.7% of pteridophytes, 43.9% of bryophytes and 53.07% of fungi found in India. Orchidaceae with over 1331 taxa (S. Misra, 2007) is one of the dominant families and probably the second largest among all families of flowering plant known from India. Of these 407 taxa are endemic to India. Out of the 18 monotypic orchid genera of India, 13 are found in the Himalayan region. In the Eastern Himalaya, the Orchid family is the largest, with 60% species, whereas in the Western Himalaya, Asteraceae with 540 species is the largest family followed by Poaceae with 439 species and Fabaceae with 362 species. Carex with more than 100 species and infraspecific categories is the largest genus in the Himalaya. Rhododendron with 96 species and infra-specific categories, and Astragalus with 90 species, is the largest genera in the Eastern and Western Himalaya, respectively. Some other plants with pronounced diversity in the Eastern Himalaya include the Hedychium (Zingiberaceae) with 18 species out of 35 Indian species, and numerous species of bamboos. The Eastern Himalaya is a cradle of numerous primitive angiosperms, such as Manglietia and Euptelea (Magnoliaceae) and Tetracentron (Tetracentraceae). Christollea himalayensis, recorded from Mt. Camet is the flowering plant occurring at the highest altitude (6300 msl). Arceuthobium minutissimum, (small angiosperm) grows on Himalayan conifers. Apart from these botanical curios, the Himalayan region has a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants. The floristic richness has also rendered the North-Eastern region and Western Ghats to be recognized as two hotspots among 25 hotspots identified throughout the world. The humid tropical conditions met within these regions not only support exceptionally diverse vegetation but have also resulted in speciation in several genera, thus adding to the high endemicity of the flora (Nayar, 1996). In addition to these two, there are about 40 other sites in different phytogeographical zones of India which have high degree of endemism and genetic diversity. Mc Neely et al. (1990) estimated that 70% of worlds total flowering plants occur in 12 countries and these have been designated as Mega diversity centres or mega ­biodiversity country. The earth’s 25 biodiversity hotspot regions collectively cover about 2% of the planet’s land surface, yet claim more than 50% of all terrestrial species diversity. They have within them a phenomenal 1, 25,635 plant species. The top 11 hotspots (out of 25) for plant endemism harbor 5000 or more species as endemics. It accounts for 93,214 plant species, or 37.3% of the total global plant endemics (Myers 1988). Western Ghats The Western Ghats, which covers an area of approximately 1, 60,000 Km ², are among the 25 biodiversity hotspots globally identified. The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats, coupled with the regions complex geography, produces a great variety of vegetation types. These include scrub forests in the low-lying rain shadow areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters. Based on the ecological factors and floristic composition, four major forests and 23 floristic types have been identified. Eastern Himalaya Eastern Himalaya covering the states of Sikkim, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland is the richest of the phytogeographic regions of India affording the highest plant/ animal diversity (Rao, 1994). This region is characterized by high rainfall and humidity. The abundant rains and high humidity contribute the occurrence of largest number of species in this region. North eastern region of India, blessed with wide range of physiography and ecoclimatic conditions, is the richest biodiversity centres of the Indian subcontinent (Hooker and Thompson, 1855; Hooker, 1905; Chatterjee, 1962; Rao, 1974). The north eastern India has a geographical area of about 2, 55,050 Km ². The rich plant wealth of this region has been reported by Hooker (1854). Further, Hooker’s work on â€Å"Flora of British India† (1872-97) and â€Å"Sketches on Flora of British India† (1905), presents a very detailed account on vegetation and flora of this region. Kanjilal et al. (1934-1940), in their â€Å"Flora of Assam† have provided a detailed account with emphasis on woody flora of this region. There are works on â€Å"Forest flora of Meghalaya† by Haridasan and Rao (1985, 1987) and â€Å"Grasses of North eastern India† by Shukla (1996). There are several genera endemic to Eastern Himalaya. Some important endemic genera are Aucuba, Bryocarpum, Pleurospermopsis, Gamblea, Lepidostemon, Parajaeschkaea, Paroxygraphis, Risleya, Sphaerosacme, Treutlera and Brachycaulos. Cyathopus is endemic to Sikkim. Some genera like Biswarea, Hymenandra, Jejosephia, Neoluffa, Pauia, etc. are endemic to North eastern India. Some important Eastern Himalayan endemic species are Abies densa, Agapetes incurvata, A. sikkimensis, Dipsacus atratus, Eriobotrya hookeriana, Geum macrosepalum, Larix griffithiana, Lindera heterophylla, Liparis perpusilla, Lloydia flavonutans, Maddenia himalica, Meconopsis grandis, M. superba, M. villosa, Myricaria albiflora, Primula whitei, Rhododendron baileyi, R. camelliaeflorum, R. ciliatum, R. glaucophyllum, R. grande, R. lantanum, R. lindleyi, R. wallichii, R .wightii, Rubus fragarioides, Sassurea conica, Acanthus leucostachys, Aconitum assamicum, Anoectochilus sikkimensis, Aeschynanthus parasiticus, Baliospermum micranthum, Berberis dasyclada, Calamus leptospadix, Calanthe densiflora, Capparis acutifolia, Cotoneaster assamensis, etc. (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000) Plant Diversity in Western Himalaya The Western Himalayan region is one of the 12 biogeographic regions of India and includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal. This region constitutes the alpine zone, temperate, humid and warm climatic conditions. The main portion of Western Himalaya lies in J K state comprising 67.5

Pop control :: essays research papers

In the essay â€Å"Population, Delusion and Reality,† Amartya Sen discusses two opposing approaches to population control. These two approaches are â€Å"collaboration† and â€Å"override† The collaboration approach calls for a voluntary choice as well as a collaborative solution to controlling the population growth. The collaborative approach relies on more choices for men and women, a more educated and rational decision on the part of both men and women, and an open arena for a more extensive discussion on such subjects. These men and women are able to make such rational decisions based on the opportunity to be more educated and with a sense of self-confidence when presented with the ability to do so by having public policies such as family planning, health care, bigger and better education facilities and a sense of economic well being. Our ability to solve problems by making rational and educated decisions seems like a better alternative than to forcing a reso lution. The â€Å"override† approach works by means of legal or economic coercion, such as the means that China forces with their â€Å"one child policy.† With this approach, the government may deny individuals of job opportunities or deny housing. These people are left with no other choice but to follow along with what the government would want them to do. Although the collaboration method results in a higher standard of living with higher levels of consumption as well as increases threats to the environment, Sen believes that it is still the preferred method of controlling and curbing the population at hand. For one, â€Å"override† leaves the individual with very few choices. It limits their freedom. As with China, it can lead to neglect and often endangerment to a second child. More often than not, since a male child is favored among the Chinese, female children have been reported to have been severely neglected and speculations that female infanticide may occur. A higher level of consumption isn’t big enough of a problem as some may assume. As Sen puts it â€Å" the worldwide trend of output of food per person has been firmly upward.† The places that have an increase in population are the ones that also seem to have an increase in the production of food. The average American does pose as a bigger threat on the environment than dozens of Third World individuals, but yet these individuals raise a red flag for complications for a denser population on rural resources such as forests, fields, and other greenery.

Conservatism Is Merely A Ruling Class Ideology

Conservatism has three strands: Traditional, New Right and Post New right conservatism. It serves in the interest of the rich and powerful and it serves in the interest of every social class, including the poor. Marxists in particular would argue that conservatism is a class based ideology. They would also argue that ideologies reflect the interest of a particular class. Burke was a traditional conservative and he believed in the organic state. Traditional conservatives are motivated by the organic state they believe that the society is a living entity, rather than a mechanism. They consider society as a pyramid and command structure, which serves in the interest of the rich because society is fixed and the rich will always be at the top. Society can never have social equality because of hierarchy. They do not believe in meritocracy and individualism, they believe that society is more important than the individual, therefore they believe in collectivism. People may believe that the ideology is good but in reality it is not because people do not have rights they have duties and conservatives only recognize equality of status. Socialists believe in economic equality, this is the only equality that does not keep people down. Conservatism was reaction against Liberalism (French revolution). Burke was against the French revolution. Disraeli was also motivated by class interest. He introduced One-nation conservatism, which was about keeping social cohesion between the rich and the poor. Disraeli gave the vote to the urban working class male because if he did not the Liberals would have done so. Burke once said that he ‘the palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy' meaning that the rich are not happy when the poor are not satisfied. If the poor is not satisfied then there will not be social stability, because there will be a revolution. Burke introduced social reforms to stop a revolution. Randolph Churchill formulated ‘Tory democracy' which stated that in order to gain the support of the working-class they have to develop the empire by making them believe in it. They did not want to do too much for the poor, but rather to help them enough to keep them happy. Conservatives voted against the NHS, which was brought in by Labour, because it is a ruling class ideology. They only decided to accept the NHS because they are pragmatic and they did not believe in nationalized industries because it took power away for the poor. They believed in the mixed economy. They disliked nationalization and wanted to privatize most nationalized businesses. They introduced the minimum wage and it was popular and a vote winner. In 1979, Thatcher became Prime Minister and she also served the interest of the rich. She privatized industries such as British telecom, British railways. Liberal New right believed in and rolling back the state, hence the belief in laissez-faire economics. They believed in the non-interventionist state, that the state will not intervene in the economy to help the poor. For example: the Battle of Orgreaves, the miner's strike; the government refused to subsidize what they called the uneconomic picks. Thatcher setup grant maintained schools which got more money. Schools were a two tier system and the ‘better-off' benefited from this. This basically suggests that Thatcher reeks of the rich. Society was more differential because people had more respect. Disraeli introduced one-nation conservatism, and he was genuinely concerned about the poor, evidenced in his quote, ‘there is a gap between the rich and the poor' and his Crystal Palace speech. Disraeli detested capitalism because it creates inequality and exploits workers. He did what he had to do to stop a revolution, the invention of One-nation. Burke believed in the organic state and this was not just about the rich and the poor, as a traditional conservative he believed that everyone should be valued equally. The whole of the ideology was paternalistic meaning that conservatism like a father cares for the people, not just in the interest of the rich. This is confirmed in the quote, â€Å"Society is a partnership between†¦ † it suggests that we are all valuable. All traditional conservatives believe in social reforms because of the rule of One-nation. In Harold Macmillan's ‘Middle Way' (1938), he advocates the mixed economy. After the WWII, they realized that there was a new way to help the poor by accepting the welfare state, they also accepted Keynesianism by reflate the economy. Conservatives were very Keynes on grammar school, after all Thatcher went to a Grammar school. As Liberal New right Thatcher believed I meritocracy, individualism and embourgeoisement. Individualism means you can make it and meritocracy means that you can make it on merit. For example, selling councils houses; buying it means that it is now our property, owned democracy. People could buy shares, share owning democracy, not just the rich and the powerful, but also the poor. Post-New right, neo-liberal leaders: Hague, Smith, Major, Howard and Cameron, all have business interest. Cameron has adopted and fused neo-liberalism with elements of One-nation. Cameron believes in social responsibility. This means that society has to work together to look after and care for each other, however if we care for each other the government will not help us. For example: Jamie Oliver; it was not the government that improved school dinners. Social responsibility is a way of saying ‘rolling back the state', Cameron uses One-nation rhetoric, though he still wants a smaller state, he does not want to regulate the state. He wants to take politicians out of the NHS. He fused neo-liberal elements and one-nation because he cares about the economy, example targeting families who have to pay child-minders; instead they pay money to family relatives to look after your children. This is One-nation because keeps social cohesion. In 1979, the working-class voted Thatcher in because in 1983, the Conservatives promised that people could buy council houses and Labour said they would nationalize the banks. Thatcher would win because she had taken on the Falklands war and found victory.

Nucleosynthesis Essays - Nuclear Physics, Nuclear Chemistry

Nucleosynthesis Essays - Nuclear Physics, Nuclear Chemistry Nucleosynthesis The big bang which created the universe, only created the elements Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He) and possibly a very small amount of Lithium (Li). However, a glance at the periodic table of the elements shows that today (some 15 billion years after the big bang) there are at least 108 known elements. Every atom of every element heavier than Li has been produced since the big bang! The factories which make these elements are stars. Nucleosynthesis or the synthesis of nuclei, is the process by which stars (which start out consisting mostly of H and He) produce all other elements. The key is nuclear fusion, in which small nuclei are joined together to form a larger nucleus. (This contrasts with nuclear fission, in which a large nucleus breaks apart to form two smaller nuclei). Fusion requires an extremely large amount of energy (see fig. 1), and can typically only take place in the centers of stars. FIGURE 1 a) Low energy proton is strongly repelled by the 7Be nucleus.b) High energy proton moves so fast that it can strike the 7Be nucleus. Once the proton touches the nucleus, it has a chance to stick. If the proton sticks, the 7Be becomes a 8B nucleus.c) 8B is radioactive and changes into 8Be plus a positron (b+) and a neutrino (n). 8Be is itself radioactive, and almost immediately breaks into two 4He nuclei. Protons repel each other. This repulsion becomes stronger as the protons get closer together (just like when you try to stick two magnets together north to north, or south to south. Try this! As you push the magnets closer together, it becomes harder to do). However, if the protons can actually touch each other, they have a chance to stick together! This is because of the strong nuclear force which attracts nucleons (protons or neutrons) together, and is much stronger (at close range) than the electromagnetic force repulsion that makes protons repel other protons. (Magnets do not do this: two like poles will never stick together). In order to get a proton to strike another proton (or a nucleus that contains several protons) they must be traveling at high relative speeds; if their closing velocity is not great enough, they will never get close enough to stick together, because they strongly repel each other. But, just as you can make two of the same magnetic poles touch each other by providing sufficient force, so too can protons touch when they have sufficient relative speed. This can take place in the center of the sun, where the temperature is extremely high. Temperature is related to atomic motion: the hotter something is, the faster its atoms are moving [] see demo food coloring in water[]. Table 1 shows the nuclear reactions that are taking place in our sun, as well as nuclear reactions that take place in stars that are either older than our sun, or hotter than our sun. The reactions in columns 2 and 3 occur after a star has entered the red giant phase. How fast a star evolves to this point depends on its mass: stars heavier than the sun can reach this phase in less than 5 billion years (the age of the sun) whereas stars with about our sun's mass take about 10 billion years to get there. The particles you may be unfamiliar with are: n the neutrino, g a gamma ray (high energy light wave), and b+ the positron (the antimatter version of the electron). TABLE 1. NUCLEAR REACTIONS IN STARS OUR SUN NOW OLDER, OR HOTTER STARS p + p 2H + b+ + n 4He + 4He 8Be + g 12C + p 13N + g 2H + p 3He + g 8Be + 4He 12C + g 13N 13C + b+ + n 3He + 3He 4He + p + p 12C + 4He 16O + g T1/2 = 10 min 16O + 4He 20Ne + g 13C + p 14N + g 3He + 4He 7Be + g 20Ne + 4He 24Mg + g 14N + p 15O + g 7Be + p 8B + g 15O 15N + b+ + n 8B 8Be + b+ + n T1/2 = 120 ms 8Be 4He + 4He 15N + p 12C + 4He He burning (core) H

Geology Term Paper Topics

Geology Term Paper Topics Writing a geology paper requires significant efforts and knowledge on the topic. A geology term paper, is something you write to show all your knowledge on the geology topics, and it represents your overall efforts during a big part of your geology course. A geology term paper is a very important paper, as in most cases the final grade consists of 80% of your geology term paper. In order to be able to write a sound geology term paper – you have to come up with a great geology term paper topic. These geology term paper topics can be absolutely different, and they depend only on your willingness to discuss a specific geology term paper topic. If you want to earn a very good grade – you have to be ready to write a geology term paper on a hard and interesting geology term paper topic. Your geology term paper topic has to represent your overall knowledge on the subject, hence – you need to pick a geology term paper topic that covers most parts of your geology course.   If you are having difficulties with choosing a good term paper topic on geology – try consulting your geology professor, or your geology term paper advisor. He will definitely give you an idea of what to write about and also give you some specific tips on how to write a good geology term paper. If you are not able to contact your professor – you might want to ask CustomWritings.com for geology term paper topics writing assistance. We understand that some students, if not all, have problems writing various term papers, and we gladly offer our term paper writing help and term paper writing assistance. There is nothing we can not accomplish, so be sure to ask – and we will immediately get to work to help you with all your geology term paper topics. Another important aspect of writing on any geology term paper topics – is research. Before even starting to write your own geology term paper – you have to analyze and make synthesis of everything that was done before you. That way you will get a more clear idea on what you should write about, and maybe get some tips and ideas which you would like to implement in your own paper. Caution! When you are using someone else’s work in order to write your own – you need to cite and reference everything accordingly. Not a single quotation must stay incited.   Academic institutions feel very strongly about incited material, and may even accuse you of plagiarism. In this case you either get an enormous grade deduction, or in the worst scenario, you can get expelled from the academic institution. Be careful with every source you use, as it may be crucial for all your geology term paper topics. After research has been made – you can start developing a geology term paper structure, using which you will write your geology term paper. Always use a geology term paper topic outline, as it will definitely help you structure all your ideas into a great term paper. Avoid jumping from one hypothesis to another one. Make sure that every statement you write in your term paper is proved with proper evidence, and that the reader is convinced with every thought and idea you express in geology term paper topics. Here is a list of the most popular geology essay topics: 1. Glacial Geology 2. Geology hydrothermal vents 3. Geology Field Trip Report 4. Coastal Erosion Geology 5. Broad Analysis of Igneous Rocks in Earths Geology 6. Coastal Erosion Geology 7. The Geology of Mt. Kilauea 8. Background Info on Geology 9. Geology of the Alps 10. Indiana Geology 11. Manitou Springs Geology 12. Geology of the Great Lakes

Rogerian Argument on The Chinese in all of Us Essay

Rogerian Argument on The Chinese in all of Us - Essay Example He thinks that there is no such thing as multiculturalism, there is only a melting pot and all the cultures go in and a different culture(s) emerges. The theme is relevant to all, as everyone supposedly belongs to some culture or race. If the only constant is change then what is a culture anyway? If certain tradition, style of speaking, food and dress remains specific to a place for a certain amount of time, does it mean it will always stay that way, if this is not true then what happened to the Stone Age culture and hunting with spears made of bone and wood? Shouldn’t we all hold on to our ‘true culture’? Rodriguez is right in his reasoning because he grew up in America, born to a Mexican family. He lived through all of the cultural amalgamation in the US. There are no hard and fast rules to cultures anymore. Probably there is no culture after all, but the culture of change and evolution. Rodriguez is right in arguing that there is no multiculturalism, it is just a haze. He astoundingly explains this to an interviewer who asks him if he considers himself as Hispanic or American, and he replies, Chinese. That is what he grew up with; a little bit of this and a little bit of that. He is born to Mexican parents and goes to an American school (where he’s shown to speak ‘proper’ English) and has Chinese neighbors. The ‘proper’ English even teaches him how to say his own name as the school teacher writes his name on the board and reads it out loud and asks him to follow along, so that the whole class gets familiar with his name and he gets to say his name in a certain accent; the ‘proper’ accent, this is what the culture (or multiculture) is all about. However, certain things remain specific to certain cultures, for instance Asian culture is very different from the Western culture; â€Å"Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of indiv iduals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them.† (Markus and Kitayama, 1991) But there is something in the world that brings together different cultures, the melting pot. The author frequently uses the term melting pot and prefers it over common culture or multiculture. The term melting pot represents the trend in culture in a better way. The author has introduced two different views about the ‘melting pot theory’, one is positive while the other has some negativity attached to it. The author says that the melting pot has changes people. When someone goes into it, their identity is lost. An African will not remain African after the melting pot treatment. The loss of identity or separation from the origin is what he refers to as something which he doesn’t look forward to. He accepts it only because of its inevitability. The inevitable side of the ‘identity loss’ makes sense. Thi s world belongs to everyone; it would be ridiculous to think that certain race will remain in a certain piece of land for all eternity; an impossibility. They will eventually travel to some other part of this world. And when they live with the other ‘cultures’ they will take some part of it and will give some of theirs; â€Å"Even while America changes the immigrants, the immigrants are changing us† (Rodriguez) The other way Rodriguez sees the melting pot is somewhat of a miracle pot. A person goes in it and comes out as something different. The pot has magical powers, but he question is; does it bring people closer or pushes them away? Clearly it brings them closer at the cost of the so called ‘identity’. The only thing wrong with this approach is when people are forced to adapt to certain norms. They have their own culture and lifestyle, why would the dominant culture suppress it

The Replicability of the Technological & IT Sector Model of Silicon Dissertation

The Replicability of the Technological & IT Sector Model of Silicon Valley, USA in the City of Birmingham, UK - Dissertation Example The paper presents the Silicon Valley, popular section of northern California just south of San Francisco Bay which has an extremely high concentration of hi-tech research centres and offices of the largest innovative companies in the world. Silicon Valley represents the hub of America's innovation sector. It has a global reach and is the concentration of the best brains in the IT and technology industry. However, in spite of the extremely high concentration of minds and capital in Silicon Valley, it came from very modest beginnings. Lee recalls that two classmates began a major electronic device manufacturing company from a one-car garage and six decades later, in 1999 the company, then known as Hewlett-Packard led Silicon Valley in revenue with $47.1 billion. Yahoo, another brand with its operations in Silicon Valley had a market capitalization of $70 billion in 1999. Silicon Valley is a leader in the technology and innovation industry. The following hi-tech hardware and software have companies that have their primary operations located in Silicon Valley: 1. Integrated Circuits (Intel) 2. Personal Computers (Apple) 3. Work Stations (HP, Sun Microsystems) 4. 3D Graphics (Silicon Graphics) 5. Database Software (Oracle) 6. Network Computing (3Com, Cisco Systems) 7. Internet (Excite, Yahoo, Ebay & PayPal). In terms of output, each worker at Silicon Valley accounted for $115,000 in 1999 and this represented 30% higher output per head than the average in the United States. (Lee 2000). Also, Venture Capitalists invested $13 billion in Silicon Valley alone in 1999 representing a third of all venture capital investments in America (Lee, 2000). Ironically, Silicon Valley was just a piece of agricultural land in the Southwest of America a century ago (Shueh & Wyman, 2009). This therefore shows that any fallow land could potentially be rebuilt to become like Silicon Valley, provided some important facts exist. This forms the crux of this research. Research is a quest to acquire knowledge on a given topic through the use of systematic tools and techniques (Kothari, 2005). This research is therefore initiated to answer important questions about how and why Silicon Valley developed into a multi-billion dollar concentration of top-notch research entities. The enquiry will therefore move further to identify the possibility of replicating the main initiators of the development of Silicon Valley in Birmingham, UK. It will seek to identify if the replication can be done and/or the role other significant factors are likely to play in the replicated model of Silicon Valley in Birmingham. Research Aim The research question will therefore be the assessment of the relevant factors that will be significant in the replication of the Silicon Valley Model in Birmingham, UK. In arriving at this end, the following objectives will have to be addressed: 1. An examination of the evolution of Silicon Valley USA and the identification of the roles of key stakeholders in the process. 2. A critical evaluation of how other replicas of Silicon Valley sprung up around the world. 3. An assessment of